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Monney, I., (2014). A look at the impacts of urban slums on surface water resources. A case study of Ghana's biggest slum; Old Fadama. Deutscland, Germany: Lambert Academic Publishing. http://https://www.lap-publishing.com/catalog/details//store/gb/book/978-3-8484-9627-3/a-look-at-the-impacts-of-urban-slums-on-surface-water-resources. ISBN: 978-3-8484-9627-3
Abstract
Distress migration of the poor in rural areas to urban areas in the developing world has resulted in the proliferation of urban slums. these are areas characterised by poor housing, lack of access to safe water and improved sanitation, deplorable environmental conditions, among others posing adverse health effects to human health and the environment as well. The lack of improved sanitation is particularly a big problem in slums because solid waste, excreta and untreated wastewater are discharged directly into surface water resources draining their catchments. In order to avoid pollution possibly from these sources, with implications for drinking water sources, its necessary to understand the sources, composition and loads of chemical and microbial contaminants that emanate from the insanitary conditions that prevail in slums. This book looks at the extent of pollution of surface water resources arising from these sources and the best practices to address this issue.
Distress migration of the poor in rural areas to urban areas in the developing world has resulted in the proliferation of urban slums. these are areas characterised by poor housing, lack of access to safe water and improved sanitation, deplorable environmental conditions, among others posing adverse health effects to human health and the environment as well. The lack of improved sanitation is particularly a big problem in slums because solid waste, excreta and untreated wastewater are discharged directly into surface water resources draining their catchments. In order to avoid pollution possibly from these sources, with implications for drinking water sources, its necessary to understand the sources, composition and loads of chemical and microbial contaminants that emanate from the insanitary conditions that prevail in slums. This book looks at the extent of pollution of surface water resources arising from these sources and the best practices to address this issue.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Monney, I., Dwumfour-Asare, B., Owusu-Mensah, I. and Badzi, S.E.Y. (2014). Translating hand hygiene knowledge into practice: A study of basic school children in an urban community in Ghana. International Journal of Innovative Research & Development, 3,
Abstract
This paper generally examines the level of knowledge and practice of hand washing with soap (HWWS) among basic school pupils and the existing challenges. The study employed structured questionnaires, interviews and spot observations to obtain relevant information from 162 pupils and 20 head teachers from 20 primary schools in Ofankor, in the Ga East Municipality, Ghana. The pupils comprising of equal proportion of boys and girls were purposively selected from the lower and upper primary grades. Most pupils (87%) reported being educated on HWWS but 73% reported actually practicing HWWS after visiting the toilet. Protection from illnesses was generally mentioned (60%) as the major importance of HWWS. Apparently, pupils who claimed to be educated on HWWS are more likely to wash their hands after visiting the toilet and before eating as compared to those who have not been educated (χ2= 4.17; p < 0.05). Younger pupils (lower primary) are reportedly more likely to wash their hands after visiting the toilet and before eating as compared to older pupils (upper primary) (χ2 = 13.40; p < 0.05). Conversely, no statistically significant association (χ2 = 2.96; p > 0.05) was found between gender and these two critical moments for HWWS. Although pupils have good knowledge of HWWS, hand washing stations in the schools are not only substandard but also inadequate and soap provision is infrequent. The best practices to ensure effective implementation of hand hygiene programme in schools are discussed in detail in the paper.
This paper generally examines the level of knowledge and practice of hand washing with soap (HWWS) among basic school pupils and the existing challenges. The study employed structured questionnaires, interviews and spot observations to obtain relevant information from 162 pupils and 20 head teachers from 20 primary schools in Ofankor, in the Ga East Municipality, Ghana. The pupils comprising of equal proportion of boys and girls were purposively selected from the lower and upper primary grades. Most pupils (87%) reported being educated on HWWS but 73% reported actually practicing HWWS after visiting the toilet. Protection from illnesses was generally mentioned (60%) as the major importance of HWWS. Apparently, pupils who claimed to be educated on HWWS are more likely to wash their hands after visiting the toilet and before eating as compared to those who have not been educated (χ2= 4.17; p < 0.05). Younger pupils (lower primary) are reportedly more likely to wash their hands after visiting the toilet and before eating as compared to older pupils (upper primary) (χ2 = 13.40; p < 0.05). Conversely, no statistically significant association (χ2 = 2.96; p > 0.05) was found between gender and these two critical moments for HWWS. Although pupils have good knowledge of HWWS, hand washing stations in the schools are not only substandard but also inadequate and soap provision is infrequent. The best practices to ensure effective implementation of hand hygiene programme in schools are discussed in detail in the paper.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Monney, I., Dwumfour-Asare, B., Owusu-Mensah, I. & Kuffour, R.A. (2014). Occupational health and safety practices among vehicle repair artisans in an urban area in Ghana. Journal of Environmental and Occupational Science, 3,
Abstract
Aim: The aim of the study was to assess the extent of work-related injuries and illnesses, access to first aid, use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), fire safety measures and hand hygiene practices among vehicle repair artisans. Materials and Methods: Study respondents were 100 vehicle repair artisans comprising of 28 Auto mechanics, 20 electricians, 26 welders, 18 sprayers, and 8 automobile interior designers selected by simple random sampling. Semi-structured questionnaires, extensive field observations and key informant interviews were used to collect primary data in 2013/2014 and analyzed with Minitab version 16 in 2014. Results: Close to two-thirds (64%) of the artisans have sustained work-related injuries mostly resulting from cuts and burns. Respondents’ marital status (P = 0.014) and the type of work (P = 0.037) were found to be significantly associated with the incidence of physical injury, in contrast to their level of education (P = 0.874) and work experience (P = 0.203). Seventy-eight percent of the artisans lack training in fire safety and besides, basic firefighting equipment are non-existent in the workshops visited. Self-medication after injury (55%; N = 64) and ignorance in first aid administration (92%) are common among the artisans. Further, due to the physical exertions required by their work, most artisans (N = 57) experience musculoskeletal disorders. Use of PPE (27%) and proper hand hygiene practices (28%; N = 98) are generally ignored by the artisans posing possible health risks. Conclusions: Vehicle repair workers need to be educated on the dangers associated with their work and the best practices to be adopted to curb or forestall these risks.
Aim: The aim of the study was to assess the extent of work-related injuries and illnesses, access to first aid, use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), fire safety measures and hand hygiene practices among vehicle repair artisans. Materials and Methods: Study respondents were 100 vehicle repair artisans comprising of 28 Auto mechanics, 20 electricians, 26 welders, 18 sprayers, and 8 automobile interior designers selected by simple random sampling. Semi-structured questionnaires, extensive field observations and key informant interviews were used to collect primary data in 2013/2014 and analyzed with Minitab version 16 in 2014. Results: Close to two-thirds (64%) of the artisans have sustained work-related injuries mostly resulting from cuts and burns. Respondents’ marital status (P = 0.014) and the type of work (P = 0.037) were found to be significantly associated with the incidence of physical injury, in contrast to their level of education (P = 0.874) and work experience (P = 0.203). Seventy-eight percent of the artisans lack training in fire safety and besides, basic firefighting equipment are non-existent in the workshops visited. Self-medication after injury (55%; N = 64) and ignorance in first aid administration (92%) are common among the artisans. Further, due to the physical exertions required by their work, most artisans (N = 57) experience musculoskeletal disorders. Use of PPE (27%) and proper hand hygiene practices (28%; N = 98) are generally ignored by the artisans posing possible health risks. Conclusions: Vehicle repair workers need to be educated on the dangers associated with their work and the best practices to be adopted to curb or forestall these risks.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Monney, I., Agyei, D., Badzi, SEY, Campaore, P. & Nyaw, S. (2014). Food hygiene and Safety Practices among Street Food Vendors: An Assessment of Compliance, Institutional and Legislative Framework in Ghana. Food and Public Health, 4,
Abstract
This cross sectional study assesses compliance with eight food hygiene and safety principles among 200 randomly selected food vendors in two study locations in Ghana; Bibiani and Dormaa Ahenkro. Compliance levels were ranked according to a 5-point Likert scale based on calculated compliance scores. It also examines existing institutional and legislative framework for regulating the activities of food vendors in Ghana. Data collection was based primarily on extensive field observation and complemented by face-to-face interviews using structured questionnaires and in-depth interview with an experienced health official. The study observed a marginally good [overall compliance (OC) score = 0.67, on a 0 to 1scale] compliance with the food hygiene and safety principles with clear disparities between the two study areas: compliance at Dormaa-Ahenkro was relatively higher (OC-score = 0.71) than Bibiani (OC-score = 0.62). The pattern of compliance levels depicts very good compliance with medical screening (C-score = 0.91) but poor compliance with use of protective clothing (C-score=0.38). Statistically significant associations (p<0.05) were observed between majority (80%) of the food hygiene and safety principles and the study areas. The study identified weak institutional capacities; logistical constraints; overlapping and duplicated institutional responsibilities; inconsistent local bye-laws as key features of existing institutions and legislations, and proposes capacity building and harmonisation of institutional roles and legislations.
This cross sectional study assesses compliance with eight food hygiene and safety principles among 200 randomly selected food vendors in two study locations in Ghana; Bibiani and Dormaa Ahenkro. Compliance levels were ranked according to a 5-point Likert scale based on calculated compliance scores. It also examines existing institutional and legislative framework for regulating the activities of food vendors in Ghana. Data collection was based primarily on extensive field observation and complemented by face-to-face interviews using structured questionnaires and in-depth interview with an experienced health official. The study observed a marginally good [overall compliance (OC) score = 0.67, on a 0 to 1scale] compliance with the food hygiene and safety principles with clear disparities between the two study areas: compliance at Dormaa-Ahenkro was relatively higher (OC-score = 0.71) than Bibiani (OC-score = 0.62). The pattern of compliance levels depicts very good compliance with medical screening (C-score = 0.91) but poor compliance with use of protective clothing (C-score=0.38). Statistically significant associations (p<0.05) were observed between majority (80%) of the food hygiene and safety principles and the study areas. The study identified weak institutional capacities; logistical constraints; overlapping and duplicated institutional responsibilities; inconsistent local bye-laws as key features of existing institutions and legislations, and proposes capacity building and harmonisation of institutional roles and legislations.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Wahabu, A., Oduro-Kwarteng, S., Monney, I. & Kotoka, P. (2014). Characteristics of diverted solid waste in Kumasi: a Ghanaian city. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 3,
Abstract
Waste diversion from landfills has generally been neglected in the developing world despite its potential to prolong the lifespan of landfills and generate revenues. This study aims at characterizing diverted solid waste fractions at communal collection points in seven communities and determining the trends in landfilled solid waste due to the Pay-As-You-Throw (PAYT) mechanism. It is based on quantitative measurements of diverted waste by informal waste pickers at communal collection points in seven communities in the Kumasi metropolis and analysis of landfilled waste records prior to and after the introduction of the PAYT mechanism. The study shows a daily diversion rate of 19.4±9.2kg per informal waste picker per day with no statistically significant difference (p = 0.29). This constitutes just 0.5w/w% of the total waste stream at communal collection points. The diverted waste is dominated by plastics (50%) and metals (29%). Generally, the diverted waste quantities are hugely dependent on the storage capacities of the informal waste pickers while the types of recovered items depend on readily available market. The introduction of the PAYT system, as observed from the study, immediately caused a decline (28%) in waste disposed of at communal collection points but steadily appreciated with time (26% and 13% consecutive reductions in subsequent years). The study recommends support for the informal sector, Public-Private Partnerships for waste recycling and intensive public education on PAYT mechanism prior to and after its introduction.
Waste diversion from landfills has generally been neglected in the developing world despite its potential to prolong the lifespan of landfills and generate revenues. This study aims at characterizing diverted solid waste fractions at communal collection points in seven communities and determining the trends in landfilled solid waste due to the Pay-As-You-Throw (PAYT) mechanism. It is based on quantitative measurements of diverted waste by informal waste pickers at communal collection points in seven communities in the Kumasi metropolis and analysis of landfilled waste records prior to and after the introduction of the PAYT mechanism. The study shows a daily diversion rate of 19.4±9.2kg per informal waste picker per day with no statistically significant difference (p = 0.29). This constitutes just 0.5w/w% of the total waste stream at communal collection points. The diverted waste is dominated by plastics (50%) and metals (29%). Generally, the diverted waste quantities are hugely dependent on the storage capacities of the informal waste pickers while the types of recovered items depend on readily available market. The introduction of the PAYT system, as observed from the study, immediately caused a decline (28%) in waste disposed of at communal collection points but steadily appreciated with time (26% and 13% consecutive reductions in subsequent years). The study recommends support for the informal sector, Public-Private Partnerships for waste recycling and intensive public education on PAYT mechanism prior to and after its introduction.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Monney, I., Oduro-Kwarteng S., & Odai, S.N. (2014). Assessing human resource capacity needs to meet the MDG targets on water and sanitation in Ghana. Developing Country Studies, 4,
Abstract
Achieving the MDG targets for water and sanitation (WatSan) has gained much attention in the run-up to the year 2015. While the cost of achieving these targets are known, the human resource capacity needs to do same is unexplored. In an attempt to fill this knowledge gap, this study, generally, was to test a methodology for assessing the human resource requirements to meet the WatSan MDG targets in Ghana. Consultative stakeholder meetings, structured questionnaires and key informant interviews were employed to elicit information regarding the existing human resource capacity, supply of human resource from training institutions and human resource demand for the sector. A total of 45 organisations comprising of 6 public sector institutions, 6 NGOs 14 private sector organisations and 19 training institutions were involved in the study. The study points out that, the MDG target deficit for sanitation coverage is approximately 8 times more than that of water. The private sector (46%) and NGOs (9%) are more involved in the water sector based on employee distribution as opposed to the sanitation sector which is dominated by the public sector (82%). There is a high demand for Administration and Finance and Social Development personnel for the water sector contrary to the sanitation sector where a high demand exists for Technical WatSan and Other Technical personnel to meet the MDG targets. The human resource assessment method was found to be useful. The study proposes development of recruitment policies and training plans that align with the short and long-term targets of the WatSan sector and more private sector and NGO involvement in the sanitation sector.
Achieving the MDG targets for water and sanitation (WatSan) has gained much attention in the run-up to the year 2015. While the cost of achieving these targets are known, the human resource capacity needs to do same is unexplored. In an attempt to fill this knowledge gap, this study, generally, was to test a methodology for assessing the human resource requirements to meet the WatSan MDG targets in Ghana. Consultative stakeholder meetings, structured questionnaires and key informant interviews were employed to elicit information regarding the existing human resource capacity, supply of human resource from training institutions and human resource demand for the sector. A total of 45 organisations comprising of 6 public sector institutions, 6 NGOs 14 private sector organisations and 19 training institutions were involved in the study. The study points out that, the MDG target deficit for sanitation coverage is approximately 8 times more than that of water. The private sector (46%) and NGOs (9%) are more involved in the water sector based on employee distribution as opposed to the sanitation sector which is dominated by the public sector (82%). There is a high demand for Administration and Finance and Social Development personnel for the water sector contrary to the sanitation sector where a high demand exists for Technical WatSan and Other Technical personnel to meet the MDG targets. The human resource assessment method was found to be useful. The study proposes development of recruitment policies and training plans that align with the short and long-term targets of the WatSan sector and more private sector and NGO involvement in the sanitation sector.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Tiimub, B. M., Sarkodie, P. A., Monney, I. & Maxwell, O. (2015). Heavy metal contamination of soil by quarry dust at Asonomaso in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Chemistry and Materials Research, 7,
Abstract
Environmental pollution caused by quarry dust and heavy metals is a problem for many years in Asonomaso. The main aim of this paper was to determine the amount and types of heavy metal pollutants associated with the quarrying and also identify the probable adverse effects they have on human health and the environment. About 30 quarry dust samples were collected from two sampling sites between August and November, 2011 for analysis using AAS. Evaluation using SPSS 17.0 statistical programme revealed appreciable amounts of As, Hg, Mn, Cu Zn and Pb and Fe which differ from one site to another. AAS analysis revealed relatively higher concentrations of As, Ag, Cu and Zn in both primary and secondary quarry dust than dust away from the site. However, concentrations of Mn, Fe and Pb were higher in secondary quarry dust and dust away from the primary site. Heavy metal pollution of the Asonomaso environ attributable to the quarry is thus significant and its repercussions on the health of the residents must be seriously looked at. You
Environmental pollution caused by quarry dust and heavy metals is a problem for many years in Asonomaso. The main aim of this paper was to determine the amount and types of heavy metal pollutants associated with the quarrying and also identify the probable adverse effects they have on human health and the environment. About 30 quarry dust samples were collected from two sampling sites between August and November, 2011 for analysis using AAS. Evaluation using SPSS 17.0 statistical programme revealed appreciable amounts of As, Hg, Mn, Cu Zn and Pb and Fe which differ from one site to another. AAS analysis revealed relatively higher concentrations of As, Ag, Cu and Zn in both primary and secondary quarry dust than dust away from the site. However, concentrations of Mn, Fe and Pb were higher in secondary quarry dust and dust away from the primary site. Heavy metal pollution of the Asonomaso environ attributable to the quarry is thus significant and its repercussions on the health of the residents must be seriously looked at. You
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Oduro-Kwarteng, S., Munir, S.K., Monney, I. & Keraita, B. (2015). The potential, impacts, and challenges of pay-as-you-throw for municipal solid waste services in Ghana. Journal of Environmental and Occupational Science, 4,
Abstract
Objective: This study was undertaken to examine the potential of pay-as-you-throw (PAYT) as a cost recovery mechanism, its impacts on solid waste collection services and the challenges associated with its implementation in the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana. Materials and Methods: Data were collected by weighing 262 head-loads of solid waste at communal container sites and recording their corresponding user charges in 14 low and middle-income communities in Kumasi. A household survey involving 80 randomly selected households patronizing communal disposal systems was undertaken to assess their perceptions of PAYT. In-depth interviews with heads of six private solid waste management companies and one with the Waste Management Department of the local authority were also conducted. Results: The study showed that the average revenue generated per ton of waste disposed into communal containers was GH¢ 17.07 (US$11.38). This is 70% higher than the collection fee paid to private waste management companies prior to the implementation of the PAYT. Each communal container accrues an average revenue of GH¢ 153 (≈US$103) when filled to capacity. However, a significant proportion of residents (80%) claimed not to have been informed about the PAYT mechanism prior to its implementation. Although PAYT has improved service levels due to regular pickup of communal containers, it is confronted with challenges including, inequitable user charges, illegal dumping of waste into communal containers at night; non-payment of user charges; and indiscriminate dumping of waste at unapproved locations. Conclusion: PAYT approach has the potential to ensure cost recovery and should be sustained. The local authority need to ensure equitable user charges; allocate buy-back points; undertake intensive public education on the PAYT; and monitor private waste management companies against exorbitant user charges.
Objective: This study was undertaken to examine the potential of pay-as-you-throw (PAYT) as a cost recovery mechanism, its impacts on solid waste collection services and the challenges associated with its implementation in the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana. Materials and Methods: Data were collected by weighing 262 head-loads of solid waste at communal container sites and recording their corresponding user charges in 14 low and middle-income communities in Kumasi. A household survey involving 80 randomly selected households patronizing communal disposal systems was undertaken to assess their perceptions of PAYT. In-depth interviews with heads of six private solid waste management companies and one with the Waste Management Department of the local authority were also conducted. Results: The study showed that the average revenue generated per ton of waste disposed into communal containers was GH¢ 17.07 (US$11.38). This is 70% higher than the collection fee paid to private waste management companies prior to the implementation of the PAYT. Each communal container accrues an average revenue of GH¢ 153 (≈US$103) when filled to capacity. However, a significant proportion of residents (80%) claimed not to have been informed about the PAYT mechanism prior to its implementation. Although PAYT has improved service levels due to regular pickup of communal containers, it is confronted with challenges including, inequitable user charges, illegal dumping of waste into communal containers at night; non-payment of user charges; and indiscriminate dumping of waste at unapproved locations. Conclusion: PAYT approach has the potential to ensure cost recovery and should be sustained. The local authority need to ensure equitable user charges; allocate buy-back points; undertake intensive public education on the PAYT; and monitor private waste management companies against exorbitant user charges.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
S. Oduro-Kwarteng, I. Monney & I. Braimah (2015). Human resources capacity in Ghana’s water, sanitation and hygiene sector: analysis of capacity gaps and policy implications. Water Policy, 17,
Abstract
Adequate human resources (HR) capacity in the water and sanitation sector plays a pivotal role in improving and sustaining access to potable water and improved sanitation. This study highlights the HR capacity and gaps in Ghana’s water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector. It is based on data collected from five public sector organisations, six non-governmental organisations (NGOs), 14 private sector institutions and 12 training institutions. The results indicate that the proportion of technical HR was high (75%) in water service delivery, while technical personnel in the sanitation sub-sector was low (2%), leading to low sanitation coverage and ineffective sanitation service delivery. The female proportion ranged from 16 to 44% (average of 22%). There was a shortage of technical personnel in the public WASH sector due to unattractive working conditions, attrition and lack of qualified graduates to fill vacant positions. Average annual graduates’ supply from non-technical programmes to the WASH sector is five times more than that from technical programmes. There was a lack of commitment to implement policies on developing adequate HR capacity in the WASH sector due to weak institutional arrangement. There is the need to develop policies on HR career progression and capacity building programmes as well as gender sensitive recruitment policies for the WASH sector.
Adequate human resources (HR) capacity in the water and sanitation sector plays a pivotal role in improving and sustaining access to potable water and improved sanitation. This study highlights the HR capacity and gaps in Ghana’s water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector. It is based on data collected from five public sector organisations, six non-governmental organisations (NGOs), 14 private sector institutions and 12 training institutions. The results indicate that the proportion of technical HR was high (75%) in water service delivery, while technical personnel in the sanitation sub-sector was low (2%), leading to low sanitation coverage and ineffective sanitation service delivery. The female proportion ranged from 16 to 44% (average of 22%). There was a shortage of technical personnel in the public WASH sector due to unattractive working conditions, attrition and lack of qualified graduates to fill vacant positions. Average annual graduates’ supply from non-technical programmes to the WASH sector is five times more than that from technical programmes. There was a lack of commitment to implement policies on developing adequate HR capacity in the WASH sector due to weak institutional arrangement. There is the need to develop policies on HR career progression and capacity building programmes as well as gender sensitive recruitment policies for the WASH sector.
Faculty of Science and Environment EducationJul 07, 2015
Sam. E. F; Adu-Boahen, K & Kissah-Korsah, K
3rd Social Science Conference: Bringing the Gown to Town. UEW, South Campus, Winneba, Ghana 12-14 March, 2014
Paper presented:
Assessing the factors that influence public transport mode preference and patronage: Perspectives of students of University of Cape Coast (UCC), Ghana
Abstract
Several factors influence the preference and patronage of one public transport mode as against the others. The study set out to assess the factors that influence students of the University of Cape Coast in their choice of public transport service operators. Using questionnaires and interview guides, the study was conducted at five main intercity bus terminals in Cape Coast involving 100 student commuters who happened to be available at the various terminals during the survey (Easter break). The study found that the students gave massive consideration to fare, safety, comfort and reliability before deciding on which transport operator to choose. The study also revealed that the government-owned fleet were the most preferred by the students surveyed compared to the other privately-owned modals. It was thus concluded that service operator preference and patronage was a function of how affordable, comfortable, safe and reliable their fleet and services are and also that the students preferred the services of both the Metro Mass Transit (MMT) Ltd and Intercity STC Coaches Ltd compared to the other operators because they have relatively cheaper fares and are perceived to be safe as well as are comfortable and reliable respectively
Several factors influence the preference and patronage of one public transport mode as against the others. The study set out to assess the factors that influence students of the University of Cape Coast in their choice of public transport service operators. Using questionnaires and interview guides, the study was conducted at five main intercity bus terminals in Cape Coast involving 100 student commuters who happened to be available at the various terminals during the survey (Easter break). The study found that the students gave massive consideration to fare, safety, comfort and reliability before deciding on which transport operator to choose. The study also revealed that the government-owned fleet were the most preferred by the students surveyed compared to the other privately-owned modals. It was thus concluded that service operator preference and patronage was a function of how affordable, comfortable, safe and reliable their fleet and services are and also that the students preferred the services of both the Metro Mass Transit (MMT) Ltd and Intercity STC Coaches Ltd compared to the other operators because they have relatively cheaper fares and are perceived to be safe as well as are comfortable and reliable respectively
Faculty of Social Sciences EducationJul 07, 2015
